Bonding, structure, and the properties of matter questions

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 1F · Q5 · 9 marks

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  [05.6] Three quarters of students gave the correct value, with 2.7 cm3 being the more popular distractor.

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  This question is about electrolysis. Aluminium is extracted by electrolysis of a molten mixture of aluminium oxide and cryolite; the products are molten aluminium and oxygen gas. A student also investigated electrolysis of magnesium sulfate solution at currents of 0.05 A and 0.10 A.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 1F · Q8 · 8 marks

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  [08.4] This was answered less successfully. Many stated that Mendeleev left spaces for other elements to be discovered which, while true, does not answer the question. Others answered in terms of atomic number, which was not known in Mendeleev’s time. Even those who tried to answer in terms of placing elements in the ‘correct’ group rarely mentioned properties.

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  This question is about elements in the periodic table. Gallium is a Group 3 metal; argon is in Group 0. Element X has isotopes of mass 113 (4%) and 115 (96%).

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 1F · Q9 · 11 marks

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  [09.4] Only one in six students scored the mark, despite the clear statement in the specification that the molecules do not have an overall electrical charge. Those who did gain credit usually mentioned there being no delocalised electrons. ‘Free’ is not the same as delocalised in this context and did not gain credit. Popular incorrect responses were that the molecules are too small or that the molecules cannot move.

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  This question is about structure and bonding. A representation of ionic calcium sulfide contains 9 calcium ions and 9 sulfide ions. Graphite is a form of carbon. Methane consists of small molecules and poly(ethene) is a polymer.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 1H · Q1 · 8 marks

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  [01.1] Only a quarter of students scored the mark, despite the clear statement in the specification. Many referred to the right of the table, but fewer referred to the top. Those who referred to specific groups were often correct but some omitted Group 0. Some referred to a ‘staircase’ but did not specify what it means; it should be noted that the periodic table provided does not show a staircase.

  Text version

  This question is about elements in the periodic table. Gallium is a Group 3 metal; argon is in Group 0. Element X has isotopes of mass 113 (4%) and 115 (96%).

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 1H · Q2 · 11 marks

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  [02.3] This was well answered by the majority of students, with two thirds reaching level 2. The question discriminated well. Many referred to the giant structure, the layers, the covalent bonds and the delocalised electrons. Fewer referred to the hexagonal rings of carbon atoms, with some incorrectly referring to the layers themselves as hexagonal. Many tried to refer to each carbon atom having three bonds, but some could not express themselves clearly, for example by leaving out the word atom or by implying that the whole structure contained only 3 bonds or 3 atoms. Fewer referred to the strength of the covalent bonds, with some incorrectly saying that covalent bonds are weak. Many also referred to the lack of covalent bonds between layers or the presence of weak intermolecular forces between the layers, but some referred to intermolecular forces without specifying their location. Very few referred to covalent bonds being shared pairs of electrons or to the fact that there is one delocalised electron per carbon atom. Many students introduced properties of graphite, which were not asked for and did not gain credit.

  Text version

  This question is about structure and bonding. A representation of ionic calcium sulfide contains 9 calcium ions and 9 sulfide ions. Graphite is a form of carbon. Methane consists of small molecules and poly(ethene) is a polymer.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 1H · Q5 · 12 marks

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  [05.1] Over half of students scored both marks by giving the description in the specification. For the first marking point, the idea of both the shape and the charge were needed. Common errors were to refer to a positive ‘cloud’ or a ball of positive ‘energy’. Other errors were to refer to protons, which had not been discovered, or to imply that there was an overall positive charge on the atom as a whole; atoms were known to be neutral in terms of charge. For the second marking point the electrons needed to be referred to as such, not just negative charge. Common errors were to imply that electrons were on the surface rather than embedded, or that they were moving.

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  This question is about small particles. A cubic nanoparticle has side length 1.2 nm. A scratch-resistant lens coating can use nanoparticles instead of fine particles.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 1H · Q6 · 11 marks

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  [06.2] Only a half of students knew that cryolite was the correct substance. The most common incorrect answer was water.

  Text version

  Aluminium is extracted by electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide mixed with another substance. Oxygen forms at the positive electrode.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 1H · Q7 · 9 marks

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  [07.1] Whilst the majority of students reached level 1, only one in eight gave sufficient linked reasons to reach level 2. This was a high demand extended response question with the command word ‘evaluate’. Merely making comparisons from the information in the table was insufficient to gain credit. Consequences of those comparisons were necessary to count as linked reasons. An overall judgement or several individual judgements were necessary to reach Level 2, but many answers contained no judgement at all. Many students were able to link the states at room temperature to a consequence such as hydrazine being easier to store or transport. Many were also able to link the need for © 2025 AQA a catalyst to potential extra costs. However, they had difficulty with consequences of the other information in the table. Most students do not realise that when comparing data in an AO3 question, sometimes there is no real advantage of one option over the other and that is a valid point to make. Many tried to justify why being explosive was more dangerous than being toxic or vice versa, instead of simply deducing that both were dangerous in different ways. A large proportion of students seem to think that nitrogen is harmful in some way, rather than deducing that neither fuel cell produces harmful products. Few students deduced that the larger voltage from hydrazine means that fewer fuel cells would need to be used in a battery; instead, they merely stated that more power would be produced from a single hydrazine fuel cell. Some students tried to refer to atom economy, which is not relevant in this context as there is no ‘desired product’.

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  Hydrazine, N₂H₄, is being researched for fuel cells. Hydrogen is a gas, explosive, gives 1.23 V and needs platinum; hydrazine is a toxic liquid, gives 1.61 V and needs no catalyst. Reactions: 2H₂ + O₂ -> 2H₂O; N₂H₄ + O₂ -> N₂ + 2H₂O.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 2F · Q1 · 10 marks

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  [01.4] Only a quarter of students correctly identified barium chloride solution. Sodium chloride solution was the most common distractor.

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  This question is about chemical analysis.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 2F · Q4 · 12 marks

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  [04.3] Around half of students knew that iron was used as a catalyst in the Haber process.

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  Ammonia is produced reversibly from nitrogen and hydrogen in the Haber process. World ammonia production (arbitrary units) was 120 in 1990, 130 in 2000, 155 in 2010 and 165 in 2020.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 2F · Q7 · 9 marks

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  [07.5] Half of students gained this mark, usually for the idea that iron rusts.

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  18 carat gold is an alloy containing 75% gold by mass; 24 carat gold is pure gold.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 2F · Q9 · 6 marks

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  [09.6] A quarter of students named butane correctly. Propane was the most common incorrect answer.

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  This question is about hydrocarbon fuels. Crude oil is heated and its vapours enter a fractionating column, where fractions condense at different heights. Boiling ranges: petrol 40-110 °C, kerosene 180-260 °C, diesel 260-320 °C, heavy fuel oil 320-400 °C, petroleum gases below 30 °C.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 2H · Q2 · 6 marks

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  [02.1] Over 90% of students correctly identified fractional distillation.

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  This question is about hydrocarbon fuels. Crude oil is heated and vapours enter a fractionating column where fractions condense at different heights. Boiling ranges: petrol 40-110 °C, kerosene 180-260 °C, diesel 260-320 °C, heavy fuel oil 320-400 °C, petroleum gases below 30 °C.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2025 · Paper 2H · Q6 · 11 marks

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  [06.1] Three quarters of students correctly identified either calcium or magnesium. A few students gained credit for zinc.

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  A student analysed ionic solutions A, B and C. A gave a white precipitate with a few drops of sodium hydroxide. B gave an orange-red flame and a white precipitate after nitric acid then silver nitrate. C effervesced with nitric acid and more slowly with equal-concentration ethanoic acid.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2024 · Paper 1F · Q1 · 2 marks

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  [01.3] More than four fifths of students identified the position of metals in the periodic table. Sections B, C and D was the most popular distractor.

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  This question is about elements, compounds and mixtures.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2024 · Paper 1F · Q4 · 10 marks

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  [04.1] Fewer than one in eight students knew that a nanoparticle is only a few hundred atoms, despite this being clearly stated in the specification. The correct answer was a less popular option than all three distractors. The most popular answer was a few million atoms.

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  This question is about nanoparticles. Nanoparticles can be used in sun creams and wound dressings. Carbon nanoparticles are strong; silicon dioxide nanoparticles are hard; silver nanoparticles kill bacteria; titanium dioxide nanoparticles block light. A cubic nanoparticle has side length 4 nm.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2024 · Paper 1H · Q4 · 8 marks

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  [04.2] This question discriminated well, with a quarter of students scoring 3 or 4 marks and the great majority scoring at least one mark. The question asked students to explain the results, but many simply described them. It was not sufficient just to describe the temperature increasing with the addition of more zinc; reference to the reaction being exothermic was also needed. The fact that the maximum temperature change occurred when 0.80 g of zinc was added was the mark scored most often, but many students were also able to explain this turning point in terms of no further reaction being possible because the zinc was now in excess. There were some excellent answers in terms of the zinc being the limiting reactant up to 0.8 g, after which the copper sulfate became the limiting reactant.

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  A student investigated the energy change when different masses of zinc powder reacted with 25 cm³ of copper sulfate solution in a polystyrene cup. A second student repeated the method four times using 0.50 g of zinc.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2024 · Paper 1H · Q5 · 7 marks

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  [05.3] Fewer than half of the students knew that hydrogen was the product. Calcium was the most popular incorrect response, with chlorine and hydrogen ions also being named as the product.

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  This question is about ionic compounds and electrolysis. Calcium chloride is ionic. Aqueous calcium chloride and green copper chromate solution can be electrolysed.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2024 · Paper 1H · Q7 · 15 marks

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  [07.2] This question discriminated well, with over a half of students scoring 2 or 3 marks. There were many well-expressed, complete answers. Common errors often involved an attempt to describe some sort of stronger bonding (sometimes covalent or ionic) in the alloy. Some lost credit because of poor use of language; it is not ‘metals’ which are different sizes, but their atoms (or positive ions). A common error was to refer to different shapes of atoms. ‘Particles’ is also insufficient as it could refer to other types of particle than atoms. ‘Intermolecular forces’ were often referred to, although they are not present in either a pure metal or an alloy.

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  This question is about iron. The common oxides include Fe₂O₃ and Fe₃O₄.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2024 · Paper 1H · Q8 · 8 marks

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  [08.3] Over a quarter of students gained full marks on this high demand question, with half of students gaining at least 4 marks. Sometimes working was very difficult to follow; there was a page full of additions and subtractions with no words to explain what these represented. Just the words ‘broken’ and ‘made’ would have clarified the working enormously. The students who scored 4 marks had usually failed to recognise that the reaction is exothermic and therefore 2219 (the magnitude of the energy change) is given by (bonds made – bonds broken) since the energy for bonds made must be the larger value in an exothermic reaction. It should be noted that ΔH and its sign convention are not in the GCSE specification. Other common errors included: not including the C—C bonds: counting 3 C—C bonds instead of 2; complete omission of the value of the energy change.

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  This question is about propane, C₃H₈. Figure 9 gives the displayed combustion equation: CH₃-CH₂-CH₃ + 5 O=O -> 3 O=C=O + 4 H-O-H. The overall energy released is 2219 kJ/mol. Bond energies: C-C 347, O=O 498, C=O in CO₂ 805, O-H 464 kJ/mol; C-H is X.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2024 · Paper 1H · Q9 · 12 marks

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  [09.1] Over a half of students knew that a weak acid is one which is partially ionised, although many forgot to state that this was in aqueous solution. Some students incorrectly stated that an acid is ionising (ionises other species) rather than ionised (is itself ionised). Some incorrectly stated that it was H+ ions which are ionised or dissociated, rather than the acid molecules. The H+ ions are the result of the ionisation or dissociation.

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  This question is about acids and their reactions.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2024 · Paper 2H · Q8 · 9 marks

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  [08.1] Around 60% of students correctly identified the C=C bond. For students who were not awarded the mark common mistakes were incorporating the 3 Hs and 1 O atom attached to the C=C group in their circle or also circling the C=O group. Others circled only the double bond and not the carbon atoms on either side.

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  Compound A contains both alkene and ester functional groups and has formula C₄H₆O₂. It is flammable and forms polymer B by joining many molecules.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2023 · Paper 1F · Q3 · 6 marks

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  [03.4] Only a half of students recognised diagram B as buckminsterfullerene, with nearly as many selecting C, which was a diagram of a nanotube.

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  This question is about carbon. Carbon has isotopes with mass numbers 12, 13 and 14. Twelve grams of carbon contains 6.02x10²³ atoms.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2023 · Paper 1F · Q4 · 6 marks

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  [04.1] This question discriminated well. Nearly a third succeeded in calculating the percentage of lead atoms as 20%, though it was less common to show the working as a simple mathematical expression. A response of 25% was fairly common, as a result of assuming the total number of atoms was 24 instead of adding all the atoms together. This answer scored two marks.

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  Solders are tin-lead alloys. A represented solder contains 6 lead atoms for every 24 tin atoms. In solder, the layers of atoms are distorted.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2023 · Paper 1F · Q5 · 8 marks

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  [05.1] This piece of knowledge from the specification was not at all well known. Fewer than a quarter of students gave the correct answer, with the rest being evenly split between the two distractors.

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  This question is about small particles. A spherical coarse particle has diameter 4000 nm; a spherical fine particle has diameter 200 nm. A cubic nanoparticle has volume 27 nm³.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2023 · Paper 1F · Q6 · 9 marks

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  [06.2] The great majority scored at least one mark. Students were asked for observations which could be seen, so those which could be heard did not gain credit. Bubbling and fizzing are the same observation; many gave both terms and no other observation so scored only one mark. Some incorrectly said that the water changes colour (possibly because they have seen the reaction carried out in the presence of an indicator).

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  This question is about metals. Platinum is used for jewellery; sodium reacts with water. Copper is a transition element and sodium is in Group 1. Aluminium and copper can both make cooking pans.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2023 · Paper 1H · Q4 · 7 marks

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  [04.4] Nearly three quarters of students scored both marks. Many fully correct diagrams were seen. The majority of students chose to use the format with a ring around each atom, but answer without rings were equally acceptable. A few students drew an extra electron on either hydrogen or carbon, and some drew ions instead of a molecule.

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  This question is about hydrogen and compounds of hydrogen. Figure 3 shows the displayed formulae for the reaction between hydrogen and chlorine: H–H + Cl–Cl → 2 H–Cl. Table 4 shows the bond energies: H–H, 436 kJ/mol; Cl–Cl, 346 kJ/mol; H–Cl, 432 kJ/mol.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2023 · Paper 1H · Q5 · 12 marks

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  [05.4] About three fifths of students knew that the OH– ion is responsible. When asked for a formula, an equation is not an appropriate response.

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  This question is about acids and alkalis.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2023 · Paper 1H · Q6 · 9 marks

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  [06.3] Nearly a third of students scored at least one mark on this high demand question, which required the linking of two different areas of the specification. Students needed to link what they knew about alloys (distorted layers due to different sized atoms) to electrical conductivity, to suggest that the distorted layers would impede the flow of electrons. Some students seem to think that the atoms in an alloy have different shapes.

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  This question is about uses of metals in electrical wires. Electrical wires can be made from: aluminium, copper, silver. Figure 6 shows three uses of electrical wires: overhead power cables, wiring in homes, and printed circuit boards. Table 5 shows information about the metals (the higher the value for electrical conductivity, the better the metal is at conducting electricity): electrical conductivity in arbitrary units — aluminium 37.7, copper 59.6, silver 63.0; density in g/cm³ — aluminium 2.7, copper 9.0, silver 10.5; cost of metal per kg in £ — aluminium 1.50, copper 7.00, silver 640.00.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2023 · Paper 1H · Q8 · 10 marks

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  [08.2] About three fifths of students were able to give a correct formula by analogy with ammonia. PH2 was a common incorrect response.

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  This question is about elements in the periodic table.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2023 · Paper 1H · Q10 · 8 marks

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  [10.2] This question discriminated well. The great majority of students scored at least one mark, with nearly a half scoring five or six marks. The most common error was not converting 100 kilograms to grams in order to calculate the moles, or converting incorrectly. Another common error was to calculate a spurious volume of TiO2. Some converted the number of moles of chlorine to a mass first, before converting to a volume; whilst unnecessary, this did give the correct answer and gained full credit. Students who gained one or two marks usually calculated the relative formula mass of TiO2 and/or converted 100 kilograms to grams. A few seemed to be concerned by the large value of the answer and introduced a division by 1000 into what would have been a correct answer. Students sometimes tried more than one method and did not cross out the one they did not want to be marked. This led to confusion and contradictions, sometimes meaning that marks could not be awarded. Students should always cross out discarded methods; examiners will not make the choice for the student.

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  This question is about titanium dioxide (TiO₂).

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• AQA 8462 · June 2023 · Paper 2F · Q6 · 9 marks

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  [06.6] Over 60% of the students were able to successfully complete the sentence. A common incorrect response was to include burning.

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  Coal, oil and natural gas are used to generate electricity. Coal/oil/gas are solid/liquid/gas and are transported by train/pipeline/pipeline. Their sulfur percentages by mass are 5%, 1% and 0.001%, and the relative quantities of solid particles on burning are high, medium and low respectively.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2022 · Paper 1F · Q6 · 5 marks

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  [06.5] Just over half of the students could count the atoms in the figure and then write the formula correctly. Many failed to gain credit because the numbers were not subscripts but the same size as the letters, or even larger.

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  This question is about carbon and its compounds. Diamond has a giant covalent structure. Carbonic acid has formula H₂CO₃.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2022 · Paper 1F · Q7 · 10 marks

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  [07.2] Most students could calculate the volume correctly. Some attempted to calculate the surface area of the cube from scratch, failing to use the value given in the question. Nearly a half of students did obtain full marks for the question, though many failed to show their working for each step and just gave the two answers.

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  This question is about small particles. A cubic nanoparticle has surface area 24 nm². An atom has radius 1x10^-10 m and a spherical nanoparticle has radius 1x10^-8 m.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2022 · Paper 1F · Q8 · 8 marks

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  [08.4] This was well answered, with the great majority of students naming both correct products.

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  A student electrolyses sodium sulfate solution containing hydrogen, hydroxide, sodium and sulfate ions. Oxygen forms at the positive electrode. Molten electrolysis products include potassium iodide -> potassium + [blank], and zinc bromide -> [blank] + bromine. Titanium is produced by TiO₂ -> Ti + O₂.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2022 · Paper 1F · Q9 · 10 marks

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  [09.5] Most students referred to electrons in their answer as required, but fewer than a third described those electrons as delocalised. Some also referred to the electrons carrying charge. However, very few articulated the idea that the electrons themselves move through the metal in a particular direction. Of those who referred to electrons moving, many implied that the movement was random. Some students incorrectly referred to electrons bumping into other atoms or electrons.

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  This question is about metals and non-metals. Aluminium is a metal. Magnesium oxide forms when magnesium reacts with oxygen.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2022 · Paper 1H · Q1 · 10 marks

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  [01.4] Nearly all students could draw the electronic structure correctly.

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  This question is about metals and non-metals. Aluminium is a metal. Magnesium oxide forms when magnesium reacts with oxygen.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2022 · Paper 1H · Q3 · 11 marks

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  [03.2] There were many excellent answers. However, a large number of students contradicted themselves by referring to ‘strong intermolecular forces’ as well as strong bonds. There are no intermolecular forces in diamond, let alone strong ones. Students sometimes referred to ‘more energy’ required to break the bonds. This did not gain credit as there was no idea of what the energy was being compared with.

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  This question is about different forms of carbon. Diamond is a form of carbon. C₇₀ is a carbon molecule. The Avogadro constant is 6.02x10²³ mol^-1.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2022 · Paper 1H · Q4 · 7 marks

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  [04.2] Few students gained this mark. Many students said the reason was to use up all the acid, without considering why that was necessary - answers in terms of ease of removal of the excess reactant were required. Whilst students seem very familiar with the method for making a salt, they appear to be less familiar with the reasons for each step.

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  Zinc oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid: ZnO(s)+2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl₂(aq)+H₂O(l). Zinc also displaces copper: Zn+CuCl₂ -> ZnCl₂+Cu.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2022 · Paper 1H · Q8 · 14 marks

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  [08.2] Most students were able to explain that the first titration is anomalous and the mean of the other four titrations is used. Some correctly described this as taking the mean of the concordant results, or the mean of the results within 0.10 cm3. Incorrect answers included that the value used was the mean of all five results, or that it was the mode or median of the results.

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  A student titrated 25.00 cm³ hydrochloric acid with 0.100 mol/dm³ barium hydroxide. Volumes were 23.90, 23.45, 23.55, 23.55 and 23.45 cm³; the calculation used 23.50 cm³. Equations: 2HCl+Ba(OH)₂ -> BaCl₂+2H₂O; H₂SO₄+Ba(OH)₂ -> BaSO₄(s)+2H₂O.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2022 · Paper 2F · Q6 · 7 marks

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  [06.5] Many deduced that one of the reactants was used up, with over 60% of the students gaining a mark. A sizeable number asserted that no light was reaching the sensor, even though the graph did not reach y = 0.

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  A student added 10 cm³ hydrochloric acid to 50 cm³ sodium thiosulfate and recorded the percentage of light reaching a sensor every 20 s as sulfur clouded the mixture. Na₂S₂O₃ + 2HCl -> NaCl + H₂O + SO₂ + S.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 1F · Q1 · 9 marks

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  This question is about elements, compounds and mixtures. A nanoparticle of metallic element X is a cube with side length 2.8 nm.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 1F · Q3 · 9 marks

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  This question is about Group 1 elements and the formation of sodium fluoride. Sodium has electronic structure 2,8,1 and potassium has 19 electrons.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 1F · Q8 · 9 marks

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  This question is about fullerenes, propanone and graphite.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 1F · Q9 · 9 marks

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  Gallium has isotopes gallium-69 (60% abundance) and gallium-71 (40% abundance). Gallium is in Group 3 and one isotope is ⁶⁹₃₁Ga.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 1H · Q1 · 9 marks

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  [01.6] Some students gave full, detailed accounts of both properties. The reasons for the slipperiness of graphite were better understood than its electrical conductivity, though many did not refer to the weakness of the forces between the layers. There was some poor use of language in the description of the structure, with atoms, molecules and ions being used interchangeably. A fairly common misconception is that there are gaps between the layers, allowing ‘electricity’ to somehow slip through. Many students did not seem to appreciate that the electric current is delocalised electrons themselves flowing through the structure.

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  This question is about fullerenes, propanone and graphite.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 1H · Q2 · 9 marks

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  [02.1] The usual definition (atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons), was not well known. Some students contradicted themselves by referring to elements in plural, rather than atoms of the same element. This was largely caused by the incorrect use of the word ‘element’ instead of ‘atom’. Others said that the relative atomic mass (rather than the mass number) is different. One misconception is that an isotope is a single atom whose numbers of protons and electrons are the same, but whose number of neutrons differs from the number of protons. Electrons are not part of the definition of an isotope; their inclusion can lead to this type of confusion and ambiguous answers.

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  Gallium has isotopes gallium-69 (60%) and gallium-71 (40%). Gallium is in Group 3 and one isotope is ⁶⁹₃₁Ga.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 1H · Q4 · 12 marks

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  [04.4] The electron arrangements of both atoms and ions were required for full marks, as well as the ratio of sodium ions to oxide ions and the correct charges on the ions. Few students scored all the marks as they did not draw the atoms of sodium and oxygen before reaction. Many tried to draw covalent structures. The ratio of 2 atoms of sodium to one of oxygen was well known. Students should be aware that electrons cannot be in two places at the same time and should not be drawn as if they are. Some students drew both ionic and covalent structures, thereby contradicting themselves and losing the marks for a correct ionic structure. A great deal of time and effort would be saved by drawing the outer electrons only, as in the specification.

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  This question is about Group 1 and sodium oxide.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 1H · Q6 · 8 marks

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  [06.3] Students were expected to do a simple comparison of the temperature change when each metal was added separately to silver nitrate solution. A control variable was needed for full marks to be awarded, as well as how the results would show which metal was the more reactive. Some students did not appear to know how to progress, with some trying to measure a temperature change while heating with a Bunsen burner, and some appearing to confuse reactivity with melting or boiling point. Of those students who did realise what was required, many spoiled their control variable by referring to the same ‘amount’ of a substance instead of volume, or concentration, or mass, as appropriate to the substance. Many students referred to temperature rather than temperature change. A few students tried to get round the fact that no other chemicals were available by making zinc nitrate and then seeing if Q would react with it. This approach could have worked but only if they had taken steps to ensure that all the silver nitrate had reacted before adding Q.

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  Substances A-D have: A mp -117 degC, bp 79 degC, non-conductor solid/liquid; B 801/1413, non-conductor solid, conductor liquid; C 1535/2750, conductor solid/liquid; D 1610/2230, non-conductor solid/liquid. Metal Q and zinc are both more reactive than silver.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 1H · Q8 · 7 marks

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  [08.4] A good number of students were successful with this calculation, although some failed to count all of the bonds correctly. Where students made a slip of this nature, or an arithmetic error, it was sometimes impossible to award marks for following through with the method, since there was often a jumble of numbers scattered over the page with no words to explain what was going on. ‘Bonds broken’ and ‘bonds made’ should be stated in calculations of this type. Many students did not use the value of 1034 kJ/mol provided.

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  2H₂S(g)+3O₂(g) -> 2H₂O(g)+2SO₂(g). Bond energies: H-S 364, O=O 498, O-H 464 kJ/mol; S=O is X. Energy released forming bonds is 1034 kJ/mol greater than energy needed to break bonds. The displayed equation contains four H-S and three O=O bonds broken, and four O-H and four S=O bonds formed.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 2F · Q3 · 13 marks

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  Window frames use poly(chloroethene), density 1.4 g/cm3 and relative strength 72, or HDPE, density 0.92 and strength 25. A 6.00 kg aluminium alloy contains 5.94 kg Al, 0.04 kg Mg and 0.02 kg Si.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 2F · Q9 · 5 marks

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  Alkane boiling points: C4 0 degC, C5 36, C6 69, C7 unknown, C8 126, C9 (nonane) 151.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2021 · Paper 2H · Q2 · 5 marks

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  [02.3] Two thirds of students identified that the y-axis did not fall below 0°C.

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  Alkane boiling points: C4 0 degC, C5 36, C6 69, C7 unknown, C8 126, C9 (nonane) 151.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2020 · Paper 1F · Q6 · 3 marks

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  A student adds citric acid to sodium hydrogencarbonate solution in 0.25 g steps and measures temperature. At 0.00, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00 and 1.25 g, temperatures are 22.6, 22.2, 21.8, 21.4, 21.0 and 20.6 degC.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2020 · Paper 1F · Q8 · 2 marks

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  This question compares substances with intermolecular forces and the structures and bonding of carbon dioxide, magnesium oxide and silicon dioxide.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2020 · Paper 1H · Q8 · 16 marks

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  [08.4] Many students realised that the fume cupboard would prevent inhalation of the gas, which is toxic. However, some students regard a fume cupboard as insulation to prevent the escape of heat energy, or thought it was to trap and retain the gas.

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  Halogen data: fluorine mp -220, bp -188 degC; chlorine -101, -35; bromine -7, 59. Iron reacts with gaseous halogens. A tube has mass 51.56 g, with iron 56.04 g, and after chlorination 64.56 g.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2020 · Paper 2F · Q5 · 8 marks

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  This question is about bronze, brass, gold alloys and steels.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2020 · Paper 2F · Q6 · 10 marks

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  Paper, ceramic and poly(propene) can make plates. Crude oil provides propene. Polymer A has crosslinks whereas polymer B does not.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2020 · Paper 2F · Q7 · 11 marks

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  Ethanol is made from grape juice by fermentation. Vinegar contains ethanoic acid; 400 cm3 vinegar contains 20 g ethanoic acid.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2020 · Paper 2H · Q8 · 4 marks

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  [08.4] This item was quite well answered by many students. The most common error was to fail to multiply the area of one face by six.

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  Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid. Large-lump mole data at 0,30,60,90,120,150,180 s are 0,0.0011,0.0020,0.0028,0.0034,0.0038,0.0040. A small reference cube has side 0.5 cm; a larger cube has side 5 cm.

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• AQA 8462 · November 2020 · Paper 2H · Q10 · 10 marks

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  [10.2] The mark for describing the colour change was scored more often than the mark for the shift in the position of equilibrium that caused this colour change. The mark for the application of Le Chatelier's Principle was rarely scored by students.

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  Fe3+(aq) yellow + SCN-(aq) colourless <-> FeSCN2+(aq) red. The equilibrium mixture is orange at room temperature.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2019 · Paper 1F · Q2 · 4 marks

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  [02.6] Approximately 80% of students identified the reaction as exothermic, having been given a description.

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  This question is about hydrogen peroxide, its catalysed decomposition and the formation of water.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2019 · Paper 1F · Q5 · 6 marks

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  [05.5] Just under a half of students correctly identified the independent variable.

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  Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid: CaCO3(X)+2HCl(aq)->CaCl2(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l). Four mass decreases for 2 g carbonate are 0.84, 0.79, 0.86 and 0.47 g.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2019 · Paper 1F · Q10 · 10 marks

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  [10.3] Almost a quarter of students scored full marks for this calculation. A similar proportion correctly calculated the surface area as 40344 nm2 but did not score the mark for converting this answer to standard form. Some students calculated the volume of the nanoparticle rather than the surface area. Even if the answer to their calculation was incorrect, a mark could still be scored for correctly converting this answer to standard form, provided that an attempt to calculate the surface area had been made.

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  Carbon nanotubes have graphene-like bonding. Racket-frame data: aluminium density 2.7, strength 0.3, stiffness 69; nanotube 1.5,60,1000; wood 0.71,0.1,10. A zinc oxide nanoparticle is a cube of side 82 nm.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2019 · Paper 1H · Q3 · 10 marks

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  [03.1] Most students scored a mark for referring to the presence of delocalised electrons in carbon nanotubes. Only a small proportion scored the mark for explaining the role of these electrons in the conduction of electricity. Some students only referred to the delocalised electrons being able to carry charge without further qualification. Others were not sufficiently precise in describing the movement of electrons through the structure. This implies movement in a particular direction as opposed to random movement, for example, around the structure.

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  Carbon nanotubes have graphene-like bonding. Racket-frame data: aluminium density 2.7, strength 0.3, stiffness 69; nanotube 1.5,60,1000; wood 0.71,0.1,10. A zinc oxide nanoparticle is a cube of side 82 nm.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2019 · Paper 1H · Q5 · 10 marks

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  [05.2] Only a small proportion of students were able to give a limitation of a dot and cross diagram. The most common correct response was that the molecule was not shown in 3 dimensions. Common responses seen that were not credited included: • only shows the outer electrons • does not show the structure • does not show the intermolecular forces.

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  Ammonia is a small covalent molecule. It reacts by 4NH3+3O2->2N2+6H2O. Bond energies kJ/mol: N-H 391, O=O 498, N≡N 945, O-H 464.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2018 · Paper 1F · Q1 · 7 marks

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  [01.7] 74% of students could calculate the volume of the cube correctly. The most popular distractor was 400 nm3, with 400 nm2 being the surface area of one face.

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  This question covers mixture separation, alloys and cubic nanoparticles. A mixture diagram contains 2 atoms of metal B among 20 total; a nanoparticle cube has side 20 nm.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2018 · Paper 1F · Q4 · 5 marks

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  [04.4] All four statements about graphite were true and 70% of students could pick out ‘delocalised electrons’ as the reason for graphite’s electrical conductivity.

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  This question is about electrolysis and graphite electrodes.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2018 · Paper 1F · Q5 · 4 marks

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  [05.3] This was very well answered, with 83% of students achieving the mark.

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  Copper carbonate is heated to copper oxide and carbon dioxide. Table results include an anomalous trial and a mass X.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2018 · Paper 1F · Q9 · 11 marks

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  [09.3] Whilst 56% of students achieved at least one mark, 34% of these students achieved both. • Many students repeated information in the stem of the question. And some appeared to ignore it as they declared sodium to be a non-metal. • Many gave differences in the structure of the atoms instead of differences in properties of the substances. • Some effectively gave the same difference twice, for example writing that sodium is soft on one line and iron is hard on the other.

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  A particle diagram of iron pyrites shows an iron:sulfur atom ratio of 1:2; iron-56 has atomic number 26. Nickel is extracted by carbon; atom-economy reactants have total Mr 87 and useful product Mr 59.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2018 · Paper 1H · Q2 · 11 marks

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  [02.1] Because the question asked for the formula rather than the empirical formula, an answer of Fe9S18 was accepted. Even so, 51% of students could not count the atoms and produce a ratio of 1:2. A formula was required, not an equation which some students provided.

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  A particle diagram of iron pyrites shows an iron:sulfur atom ratio of 1:2; iron-56 has atomic number 26. Nickel is extracted by carbon; atom-economy reactants have total Mr 87 and useful product Mr 59.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2018 · Paper 1H · Q6 · 14 marks

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  [06.3] 58% of students did not achieve a mark for this question. The investigation was stated to be about the relationship between volume and time, but the diagram showed no means of measuring volume. The expected answer was to use inverted measuring cylinders so that volume (not ‘amount’) could be measured. Although it would pose practical difficulties, the idea of using gas syringes was also accepted (on the grounds that it could be made to work if they were attached to funnels placed over the electrodes). Many suggested changing the electrodes as graphite is not inert, suggesting a lack of understanding of the required practical. Some students suggested that the apparatus is upside down.

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  A student electrolyses zinc chloride using graphite. Hydrogen collection is steady at 0.45 cm3/min; chlorine initially collects more slowly, then at the same rate after about 8 min. At 20 min chlorine volume is 6.6 cm3. Gas molar volume=24 dm3.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2018 · Paper 1H · Q7 · 11 marks

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  [07.2] Although this historically is a well-known area of the specification, lack of precision in answers cost some students greatly. 16% of students achieved all three marks, with 72% gaining some credit. The electrons are not (all) closer to the nucleus in chlorine – the outer electrons are. The relevant force of attraction is between the outer electrons and the nucleus, and is not intermolecular, magnetic or gravitational. Attracting another electron is not the same as gaining it.

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  This question concerns chlorine, iodine, hydrogen chloride and sunlight substitution of methane by bromine. Bond energies give reaction change -51 kJ/mol.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2018 · Paper 1H · Q8 · 15 marks

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  [08.7] This difficult unstructured calculation tested a new area of the specification, and discriminated very well. 74% of students were able to achieve at least one mark, usually for calculating the Mr of TiCl4. 7% of students achieved all four marks, with 12% achieving at least three marks and there were some valiant efforts. Common errors were: • using 92 instead of 23 to calculate the number of moles of Na • omitting the unit conversion from kg to g for the mole calculations • using the 1:4 mole ratio incorrectly or not at all. Also, it is not appropriate to leave answers in the form of a fraction, even if this is the default on their calculator. Answers should always be converted to decimal form.

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  Titanium manufacture uses chlorine, titanium chloride, sodium and argon. Stage 2 reacts TiCl4 with 4Na. Ar Ti=48,Cl=35.5,Na=23; actual yield comparison uses theoretical 13.5 kg and 92.3%.

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• AQA 8462 · June 2018 · Paper 2H · Q5 · 8 marks

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  [05.1] This question was generally well done. Most students could identify that the solution became cloudy because sulfur was produced and that it was a solid. A few students however were unfamiliar with the experiment and thought that a gas was produced, and that this was the cause. 42% of students achieved both marks.

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  Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium thiosulfate and produces a sulfur precipitate. A disappearing-cross experiment investigates concentration and rate.

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• AQA 8462 · sample1 · Paper 1F · Q1 · 6 marks

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  Graphite conducts electricity. An alloy contains 2 atoms X among 27 atoms total.

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• AQA 8462 · sample1 · Paper 1F · Q6 · 13 marks

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  Copper carbonate reacts with sulfuric acid to form copper sulfate, carbon dioxide and water. Useful-product Mr=159.5 and total reactant Mr=221.5.

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• AQA 8462 · sample1 · Paper 1H · Q3 · 12 marks

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  Potassium forms ionic K2S; sulfur also forms covalent H2S. Ar Al=27,S=32,O=16.

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• AQA 8462 · sample1 · Paper 1H · Q9 · 11 marks

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  Ethene reacts with bromine with overall energy change -95 kJ/mol. Bond energies include C=C 612, C-C 348, C-H 412 and C-Br 276 kJ/mol.

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• AQA 8462 · sample1 · Paper 2F · Q10 · 8 marks

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  This question compares potable water from lakes, wastewater and seawater.

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• AQA 8462 · sample1 · Paper 2H · Q10 · 5 marks

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  Ethanol is made reversibly from ethene and steam; the forward reaction is exothermic and has fewer gas molecules on the product side.

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